Data Scientist Interview Questions That Matter (with answers)

Businesses run on data and Data Scientists are some of the highest-paid IT professionals in the world.

Today, we deal with more data than ever before and this means that the demand for qualified, skilled, and experienced Data Scientists will only go up.

Given that average salaries are around $120,000 annually, there’s a lot of competition for these jobs. This blog aims to help you get ahead of the competition.

Thanks to the fact that we’re a job board, the questions that we’re going to look at are questions that recruiters are asking in 2023.

We’ll only look at 10 questions. But we expect these questions to form a significant part of your Data Scientist interview. So, for each question, you’ll see that there are three sections:

1. Why is this question asked?

2. An example answer

3. What makes this a good answer?

Pay close attention to the third section. This is where we go over what makes the example answer good. With this, you can pretty much weave in your experience to our example answer, making it even more effective.

With all that done, let’s get started.

10 Most Important Data Scientist Interview Questions

Explain what bias-variance tradeoff is in machine learning and how does it affect model performance?

Why is this question asked?

This is actually a pretty common question. The idea is to gauge a candidate's understanding of fundamental machine-learning concepts.

The bias-variance tradeoff is a key principle that all machine learning practitioners need to comprehend and navigate because it plays a significant role in model performance and generalization.

A model's ability to avoid underfitting (high bias) and overfitting (high variance) is pivotal in achieving reliable predictions.

Example Answer:

It refers to the balancing act we must perform between how flexible our model is (variance) and how much it assumes about the data (bias).

High-bias models are those that make strong assumptions about the data. For example, if we fit a linear regression model to data that has a non-linear relationship, the model is likely to have high bias, because it's assuming the underlying relationship is linear.

This often leads to underfitting, where the model performs poorly on both the training and test data because it oversimplifies the data patterns.

On the other hand, high-variance models don't make many assumptions about the data and are quite flexible. They can fit a wider range of data patterns. But this flexibility can be a double-edged sword.

If the model is too flexible, it might start picking up on the noise in the training data, rather than the actual underlying pattern. This is known as overfitting, and results in a model that performs well on the training data but poorly on unseen data.

The bias-variance tradeoff is essentially the tradeoff between underfitting and overfitting. If our model is too simple, we risk underfitting the data, leading to high bias. If our model is too complex, we risk overfitting the data, leading to high variance.

Managing this tradeoff is crucial in machine learning. We must find the "sweet spot" that minimizes total error, which is the sum of bias, variance, and irreducible error (an error that cannot be reduced regardless of the algorithm).

Various techniques such as cross-validation, regularization, or ensembling methods can help in achieving a good balance.

Why is this a good answer?

• Demonstration of conceptual understanding: The response comprehensively explains the concept of bias-variance tradeoff and its relevance in the context of machine learning.

• Practical implications: The answer not only provides a theoretical explanation but also discusses the practical implications of bias-variance tradeoff, relating it to model underfitting and overfitting.

• Detailing solutions: The respondent goes a step further to outline some strategies to handle the bias-variance tradeoff, reflecting a deep understanding and experience with the concept.

• Contextual examples: The use of clear examples to illustrate high-bias and high-variance situations helps to convey the ideas in a more understandable manner. This demonstrates effective communication skills, crucial in data science roles.

Suggested: Big Data Engineer Interview Questions That Recruiters Actually Ask

Can you explain how a Random Forest algorithm works, and what are the advantages and disadvantages compared to other ensemble methods?

Why is this question asked?

This question tests a candidate's knowledge of advanced machine-learning algorithms. Random Forest is a versatile and popular ensemble method used in many data science applications.

Understanding its working principle, its benefits, and its drawbacks as compared to other ensemble methods shows a deep understanding of applied machine learning, and allows the candidate to demonstrate their experience with practical data science techniques.

Example Answer:

Random Forest is an ensemble machine learning method that operates by constructing multiple decision trees during training. When it comes to making a prediction, each tree in the "forest" votes, and the most popular outcome is chosen as the final result.

The primary steps in building a Random Forest model are as follows:

Firstly, it uses bootstrapping to generate different subsets of the original data. Then, a decision tree is grown for each of these subsets.

During the tree building process, at each node, a random subset of features is selected and the best split among these features is determined.

The decision tree grows until some stopping criteria are met, such as the depth of the tree reaching a predetermined level. This randomness at both the row (bootstrapping) and column (feature selection) level results in a diverse set of decision trees.

When it comes to prediction, each tree in the forest predicts separately, and the final prediction is determined by majority voting in case of classification, or averaging the results in case of regression.

The key advantages of Random Forests are their versatility and robustness. They can handle both categorical and continuous variables and are relatively immune to outliers and the effects of non-informative variables.

Also, they provide an in-built method of feature selection and do not require much tuning to give good results.

However, compared to other ensemble methods, such as Gradient Boosting, Random Forests can be slower to train because they construct many large trees, and they may not perform as well when dealing with unbalanced datasets or categorical variables with many levels.

They also lack interpretability compared to simpler methods or decision trees.

Why is this a good answer?

• Understanding of Concept: The response shows a deep understanding of the Random Forest algorithm, covering how it works, its characteristics, and its use cases.

• Detail Oriented: The answer provides detailed steps on how a Random Forest model is built, which demonstrates the candidate's familiarity with the method.

• Comparison with Other Methods: The candidate not only explains Random Forest but also contrasts it with other ensemble methods, showing an understanding of a wider context.

• Practical Insight: The advantages and disadvantages are explained clearly, which indicates practical experience with the algorithm.

Suggested: Big Data Engineer Skills And Responsibilities In 2023

Describe the process of training a machine learning model and the steps you would take to evaluate its performance.

Why is this question asked?

This question assesses your understanding of the complete lifecycle of a machine learning model. It allows the candidate to showcase their knowledge of not only training a model but also evaluating its performance.

These processes are critical in the practical application of machine learning and demonstrate the candidate's ability to apply theory to real-world scenarios.

Example Answer:

Firstly, the problem needs to be defined and understood clearly. This involves understanding the business or research context, formulating the problem in a way that can be solved with machine learning, and defining the metric(s) that will be used to evaluate the model's performance.

Once the problem is defined, the next step is to collect and prepare the data. This can involve tasks such as data cleaning, dealing with missing values, outlier detection, and data transformation.

Often, the data will need to be split into a training set and a test set. The training set is used to train the model, while the test set is used to evaluate the model's performance on unseen data.

The next step is to select a suitable model or models for the task at hand.

This might involve choosing between different types of models (e.g., linear regression, decision trees, neural networks) or different configurations of the same type of model (e.g., a neural network with different numbers of layers or different activation functions).

After the model has been selected, the training process begins.

The model is fed the training data and adjusts its parameters to minimize the difference between its predictions and the actual values (this difference is quantified by the loss function). This process is often iterative and may involve techniques like gradient descent.

After the model has been trained, it's time to evaluate its performance. This is typically done by having the model make predictions on the test set and then comparing these predictions to the actual values.

The comparison is made using the evaluation metric(s) defined at the start of the process. It's important to remember that the goal is not necessarily to make the model perform perfectly on the training data, but rather to make it perform well on unseen data.

If the model's performance is not satisfactory, it may be necessary to go back to previous steps. This could involve gathering more data, cleaning the data more thoroughly, choosing a different type of model, or tuning the model's parameters.

Lastly, once the model's performance is satisfactory, it can be deployed to make predictions on new data.

Why is this a good answer?

• Comprehensiveness: The answer touches on every major step in the process of training a machine learning model, from problem definition to deployment.

• Practicality: The candidate demonstrates a clear understanding of the practical aspects of training a machine learning model, including the need for iterative refinement.

• Focus on Evaluation: The candidate emphasizes the importance of model evaluation and correctly notes that the ultimate goal is generalization, not perfect performance on the training data.

• Holistic Understanding: The answer shows a holistic understanding of the model development lifecycle, which includes not only the technical aspects but also the business or research context.

Suggested: The skills you need for any Data Science job

How would you handle missing or corrupted data in a dataset?

Why is this question asked?

Data rarely comes clean in the real world. So, a candidate's ability to handle missing or corrupted data is a crucial skill to ensure the reliability of a machine learning model.

This question assesses the candidate's understanding of data preprocessing, their ability to identify and apply appropriate strategies to handle imperfect data, and their understanding of how missing or corrupted data can impact a machine learning model's performance.

Example Answer:

Handling missing or corrupted data is an essential part of any data science project. The approach I use largely depends on the nature of the data and the extent of the missing or corrupted values.

Firstly, I'd identify the missing or corrupted data. Libraries like Pandas in Python have built-in functions (like ‘isnull()’) to identify missing data.

For corrupted data, it might involve more exploratory data analysis, looking at data summaries, distributions, or unusual values that don't match the expected format.

Once identified, I would consider the extent and randomness of the missing data. If only a small fraction of the data is missing or corrupted, and it appears to be random, I might consider deleting those rows if it won't lead to biased results.

But, this approach isn't ideal when you have a significant proportion of missing data, or the data isn't missing at random.

If the data is missing in a systematic way, I'd need to think more carefully about how to handle it. One approach is imputation, which involves filling in missing values based on other data.

The simplest form of imputation is using mean, median, or mode to fill in missing values. For categorical data, the mode (most frequent category) is often used.

Another approach is predictive imputation, where we use a statistical or machine learning method to predict the missing values based on other data.

This approach might be useful when there's a clear correlation between variables. However, it has the downside of potentially introducing bias if the model's assumptions don't hold.

As for corrupted data, I would again start by understanding the nature and extent of corruption. If the corruption is limited and identifiable, I would clean it manually.

If it's widespread, I might use anomaly detection techniques to identify and rectify the corruption, or if worst comes to worst, drop the affected variable.

These are general strategies. The specific methods would be tailored according to the data, the problem at hand, and the machine learning model I plan to use.

It's essential to always validate the strategies used by checking the impact on model performance and the underlying assumptions of your chosen ML models.

Why is this a good answer?

• Detailed Approach: The answer provides a comprehensive approach to dealing with missing and corrupted data, covering the entire process from identification to resolution.

• Practical Techniques: The candidate discusses practical techniques for handling missing data, like deletion and imputation, and also mentions how they would deal with corrupted data.

• Awareness of Impact: The candidate shows an understanding of how missing or corrupted data can affect machine learning models and emphasizes the importance of checking the impact of their strategies.

• Adaptability: The answer demonstrates that the candidate adapts their approach based on the data and problem at hand, showing flexibility and practical understanding of real-world data science projects.

Can you explain what cross-validation is and why it’s important?

Why is this question asked?

Cross-validation is a crucial technique in machine learning for assessing the performance of a model on an independent dataset and for checking for overfitting.

This question is often asked to determine if the candidate understands this technique, its applications, and the value it brings to model training and evaluation. It reflects a candidate's competence in employing industry-standard practices in their machine learning work.

Example Answer:

Cross-validation is a statistical method used to estimate the skill of machine learning models.

It is commonly used in applied machine learning to compare and select a model for a given predictive modeling problem because it is easy to understand, easy to implement, and results in skill estimates that generally have a lower bias than other methods.

The main idea behind cross-validation is to create a certain number of subsets or "folds" from the data, train the model on some of these folds, and then test the model on the remaining fold(s).

This process is repeated until each fold has been used as the testing set. We then average the model's performance over all iterations to get a more accurate measure of its performance.

One common type of cross-validation is k-fold cross-validation. In k-fold cross-validation, we split the data into 'k' folds. The model is then trained on 'k-1' folds and tested on the remaining one. This process is repeated 'k' times so that every fold gets a chance to be the testing set.

Another popular method is stratified k-fold cross-validation, which is similar to k-fold cross-validation but with a twist: in stratified cross-validation, we maintain the same proportion of target classes in each fold as in the original dataset.

This is particularly useful for imbalanced datasets.

Cross-validation is crucial for a few reasons.

First, it provides a more robust estimate of the model's performance than a simple train-test split, which is highly dependent on how the data is split.

Second, it helps in tuning the hyperparameters of a model.

Third, it can help prevent overfitting, which occurs when a model is too complex and performs well on the training data but poorly on unseen data.

Lastly, it's a useful tool for model comparison, allowing us to judge which model might perform better on unseen data.

Why is this a good answer?

• Conceptual Understanding: The answer clearly describes what cross-validation is and the rationale behind its use, demonstrating a solid understanding of the concept.

• Technical Knowledge: The candidate details different cross-validation methods like k-fold cross-validation and stratified k-fold cross-validation, showing a broad knowledge of the topic.

• Practical Application: The answer highlights how cross-validation is used in practice, including its role in hyperparameter tuning, overfitting prevention, and model comparison.

• Reasoning for Importance: The candidate articulates why cross-validation is a crucial step in the model-building process, indicating a sound comprehension of effective machine-learning practices.

What is regularization, and can you explain the differences between L1 and L2 regularization?

Why is this question asked?

Regularization is a fundamental technique in machine learning used to prevent overfitting by adding an additional penalty to the loss function.

This question helps assess the candidate's understanding of machine learning model optimization and their ability to distinguish between different regularization methods, such as L1 and L2 regularization. It checks the candidate's grasp of the mathematical underpinnings of machine learning algorithms.

Example Answer:

Regularization is a technique used to prevent overfitting in machine learning models, especially in cases where the model is complex or the amount of training data is limited.

It works by adding a penalty term to the loss function, which discourages the model from assigning too much importance to any single feature, thereby reducing the model complexity.

There are two common types of regularization, known as L1 and L2 regularization. Both of them work by adding a penalty to the loss function, but the nature of the penalty is different.

L1 regularization, also known as Lasso regularization, adds a penalty term that is the absolute value of the magnitude of the coefficients.

This has the effect of driving some of the coefficients to zero, effectively removing the least important features from the model. Therefore, L1 regularization can also be seen as a form of automatic feature selection.

L2 regularization, also known as Ridge regularization, adds a penalty term that is the square of the magnitude of the coefficients.

Unlike L1 regularization, L2 regularization doesn't drive coefficients to zero but makes them smaller. This tends to result in a model where all features have similar magnitude coefficients, meaning that all features contribute somewhat equally to the predictions.

The key difference between L1 and L2 regularization is how they handle feature selection. L1 regularization can result in sparse models where only a subset of the features are used, while L2 regularization tends to use all of the available features.

Therefore, L1 regularization might be preferable when we believe that only a few features are relevant, while L2 regularization could be a better choice when we believe that all features contribute to the outcome.

Why is this a good answer?

• Clear Explanation: The answer provides clear and easy-to-understand explanations of regularization, L1, and L2 regularization. It captures the essence of these concepts without getting overly technical.

• The distinction between L1 and L2: The candidate effectively differentiates between L1 and L2 regularization, describing how they handle feature selection differently.

• Contextual Application: The candidate provides situations where one type of regularization might be more beneficial than the other, showing a practical understanding of when to use each technique.

• Understanding of Overfitting: The mention of overfitting and how regularization helps to combat it reflects the candidate's understanding of common pitfalls in model training and how to avoid them.

Suggested: Remote Work Communication Tips To Make Your Life Easier

Discuss Principal Component Analysis (PCA). How does it work, and when should it be used?

Why is this question asked?

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a common technique used for dimensionality reduction in machine learning and data visualization. This question is asked to test the candidate's understanding of PCA, its working principle, and its applications.

It evaluates the candidate's knowledge of advanced data processing techniques, which are crucial for handling high-dimensional data and improving model performance.

Example Answer:

Principal Component Analysis, or PCA, is a statistical technique used for dimensionality reduction.

It works by identifying the directions, or principal components, in which the data varies the most, and creating new variables, or 'components', that are uncorrelated linear combinations of the original variables.

In more technical terms, PCA involves computing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the data's covariance matrix. The eigenvectors corresponding to the largest eigenvalues are the principal components, which capture most of the data's variance.

For instance, if we have a dataset with many variables, PCA can be used to reduce the number of variables while retaining the variation present in the dataset.

The new variables (principal components) are orthogonal to each other, meaning they're uncorrelated, simplifying the interpretation of the model.

PCA is best used when dealing with high-dimensional data, and the goal is to reduce dimensionality while retaining as much of the data's information as possible.

This might be done for visualization (it's much easier to visualize data in two or three dimensions), or to address the curse of dimensionality, whereby the feature space becomes so large that the model can't learn effectively.

PCA is also helpful in mitigating multicollinearity in datasets, as the new components are completely uncorrelated.

However, PCA should be used carefully as it is a linear method and may not be suitable if the underlying data structure is non-linear.

Also, interpreting the components can sometimes be challenging, as they might not have a clear meaning in the context of the original data.

Why is this a good answer?

• Technical Understanding: The candidate clearly explains how PCA works in terms of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the covariance matrix, demonstrating a strong understanding of the underlying mathematics.

• Practical Use Cases: The candidate describes when PCA should be used, outlining its utility in high-dimensional data, visualization, dealing with multicollinearity, and addressing the curse of dimensionality.

• Consideration of Limitations: By discussing PCA's limitations, the candidate shows a well-rounded understanding of the method and an ability to critically evaluate its appropriateness for different tasks.

• Explanation of PCA Purpose: The candidate accurately explains the purpose of PCA in simplifying data and models by creating uncorrelated variables, showing they can effectively apply this tool in their work.

Suggested: How To Match Your Resume To A Job Description

How do you determine which variables are most important in your model's outcomes?

Why is this question asked?

This question is often asked to gauge a candidate's understanding of feature importance, interpretability of machine learning models, and experience in feature selection techniques.

It's crucial to understand which features are driving the predictions in a model, both for improving model performance and for gaining insights from the model.

Example Answer:

Identifying the most important variables in a model's outcomes is critical for both interpreting the model and refining it. There are several techniques that can be used to gauge feature importance.

One common method is to use the coefficients in linear or logistic regression models. Larger absolute values of coefficients indicate a stronger effect on the dependent variable, assuming the features are all scaled to the same range.

For tree-based models, such as decision trees, random forests, or gradient boosting, feature importance is often measured by the reduction in impurity from including the feature in the tree. Alternatively, it can be measured by the number of times a feature is used to split the data.

Another technique is permutation feature importance. It works by randomly shuffling one feature's values in the dataset and measuring how much the model's performance drops. A large decrease indicates the feature is important for the model's predictions.

For neural networks, it can be more challenging to assess feature importance due to their complex structure.

However, techniques like LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations) or SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) can help.

Finally, it's worth noting that correlation does not imply causation, and while these methods can give us an idea of which features are most important in our models, they don't necessarily tell us whether or not changes in these features would cause changes in our dependent variable.

Why is this a good answer?

• Various Methods Discussed: The answer provides an extensive list of methods for determining variable importance, demonstrating a thorough knowledge of this area.

• Understanding of Model Types: The candidate acknowledges different methods for different types of models (linear models, tree-based models, neural networks), which indicates an understanding of these models' diverse structures.

• Consideration of Causality: The candidate wisely points out the difference between correlation and causation, demonstrating a clear understanding of the limits of these methods.

• Mention of Advanced Techniques: The candidate cites advanced techniques like LIME and SHAP, showing an awareness of cutting-edge practices in model interpretability.

Suggested: The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Remote Work In 2023

Can you describe a project where you implemented machine learning algorithms from scratch? What challenges did you face and how did you overcome them?

Why is this question asked?

This question is asked to understand the candidate's practical experience and proficiency in applying machine learning techniques.

It assesses the candidate's problem-solving skills, ability to handle challenges, and depth of understanding of the intricacies of machine learning algorithms.

This kind of question also gives insight into the candidate's communication skills and their ability to explain complex technical concepts clearly.

Example Answer:

In a previous role, I worked on a project that involved predicting customer churn for a telecom company. Due to the nature of the project, I decided to implement a logistic regression model from scratch to get a better understanding of the process.

The first challenge I faced was understanding the mathematics behind logistic regression. I overcame this by reading multiple research papers and textbooks on the topic, attending workshops, and implementing small exercises to solidify my understanding.

Next was the issue of handling missing and categorical data in our dataset. I handled missing data by implementing various imputation techniques, depending on the nature of the variable.

For categorical variables, I used one-hot encoding to convert them into a form that could be fed into the model.

Then came the process of actually coding the logistic regression algorithm. I had to thoroughly understand the concept of gradient descent and its variants for optimization.

It was challenging to translate the mathematical concepts into code, but a lot of trial and error, testing, and debugging helped me get through it.

After the model was built, I faced challenges in evaluating its performance as it was giving me uncalibrated probabilities. I then used a calibration curve to understand the discrepancy and adjusted the model accordingly.

Finally, while the model worked fine, it was computationally expensive and slower than the off-the-shelf implementations. I addressed this by profiling my code to find bottlenecks and optimizing those parts of the code.

This project was incredibly rewarding, as it not only improved my understanding of logistic regression and machine learning algorithms but also enhanced my problem-solving and debugging skills.

Why is this a good answer?

• Project Description: The candidate provides a detailed description of a specific project, which shows their practical experience in implementing machine learning algorithms.

• Problem-Solving Skills: The candidate clearly outlines the challenges they faced and how they overcame them, demonstrating their problem-solving skills and resilience.

• Understanding of Machine Learning Concepts: The candidate shows a deep understanding of key machine learning concepts such as data preprocessing, logistic regression, gradient descent, and model evaluation.

• Optimization and Efficiency: The candidate demonstrates an understanding of the importance of computational efficiency and the ability to optimize their code, which are important skills for large-scale data analysis.

Suggested: How To Write A Cover Letter That Converts

Tell us about a time when you had to communicate complex data insights to a non-technical team. How did you ensure your findings were understood?

Why is this question asked?

This question is asked to understand the candidate's ability to translate complex technical insights into clear, understandable language for a non-technical audience.

It's critical for data scientists to effectively communicate their findings to stakeholders or teams without a background in data science to ensure the insights are used correctly and to drive strategic decisions.

Example Answer:

In my previous role, I was tasked with determining the primary drivers of customer churn for a retail company. The challenge was to present my findings to the marketing team, most of whom had limited data science knowledge.

After identifying the key variables contributing to customer churn through a random forest model, I needed to communicate these findings clearly.

I started by framing my results around the key question the marketing team wanted to answer: "Why are we losing customers?"

Rather than diving into the complexities of the model, I focused on the results. I created a simplified chart ranking the variables according to their importance in predicting churn, and I explained each variable in terms of its business impact.

For example, one significant variable was the 'number of purchases in the last six months'. Instead of presenting it as a 'feature', I explained that customers who had fewer purchases recently were more likely to churn.

To make my explanation interactive, I used a decision tree visualization to show how different variables work together to predict churn.

This visualization helped them understand that it's not just one variable influencing the outcome, but a combination of different factors.

Finally, I wrapped up my presentation by suggesting actionable strategies based on the insights, such as targeted marketing campaigns for customers showing signs of high churn risk.

Throughout this process, I made sure to pause frequently for questions and used analogies to clarify complex points.

Why is this a good answer?

• Clear Communication: The candidate demonstrated the ability to communicate complex data findings in an understandable way by framing results around a central business question and using interactive visualizations.

• Focus on Impact: The candidate related the insights to their business impact, making them relevant to the non-technical team.

• Use of Visuals: Utilizing visual aids like charts and decision trees enhances comprehension, especially for non-technical audiences.

• Actionable Recommendations: By ending with actionable strategies, the candidate shows they understand the purpose of their role is not just to analyze data but to provide insights that can drive business decisions.

Suggested: Data Scientist Skills And Responsibilities In 2023

Conclusion

There you have it — 10 important Data Scientist interview questions. As mentioned in the beginning, within these answers, we’ve also answered quite a few smaller, more basic questions.

Use this as a guide when you’re prepping and amazing job offers shouldn’t be too far away.

If you’ve started looking for a job, check out Simple Job Listings. We only list remote jobs and most of the jobs that we post pay amazingly well. What’s more, a significant number of jobs that we list aren’t posted anywhere else.

Visit Simple Job Listings and find amazing remote Data Scientist jobs. Good luck!